Papers with Code-switching
Towards Code-switched Classification Exploiting Constituent Language Resources (2020.aacl-srw)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a communicative phenomenon denoting a shift from one language to another within the same speech exchange. |
| Approach: | They propose to convert code-switched data into its constituent high resource languages for use in both monolingual and cross-lingual settings. |
| Outcome: | The proposed code-switching language can be used for multiple downstream tasks . the proposed language increases the F1 score by 22% and 42.5% compared to the state-of-the-art. |
CoSSAT: Code-Switched Speech Annotation Tool (D19-59)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a phenomenon that occurs in multilingual societies where speakers who are fluent in two or more languages switch between these languages in the same conversation or utterance. |
| Approach: | They propose an interface which helps annotators transcribe code-switched speech faster, more easily and more accurately than a traditional interface. |
| Outcome: | The proposed interface can be used by 10 users to transcribe Hindi-English code-switched speech faster, easier and more accurately than a traditional interface. |
Data Augmentation Techniques for Machine Translation of Code-Switched Texts: A Comparative Study (2023.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CSW) text generation is a popular solution to address data scarcity. |
| Approach: | They compare linguistic theories, lexical replacements and back-translation approaches to Egyptian Arabic-English CSW. |
| Outcome: | The proposed methods perform best on machine translation and quality evaluation. |
Exploiting In-Domain Bilingual Corpora for Zero-Shot Transfer Learning in NLU of Intra-Sentential Code-Switching Chatbot Interactions (2022.emnlp-industry)
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Maia Aguirre, Manex Serras, Laura García-sardiña, Jacobo López-fernández, Ariane Méndez, Arantza Del Pozo
| Challenge: | Multilingual speakers outnumber monolingual speakers in the world . CS is a frequent habit in both spoken and written informal communications . |
| Approach: | They evaluate the efficacy of cross-lingual transfer learning with mBERT for NLU on a Basque-Spanish CS chatbot corpus. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model outperforms models trained on Basque and Spanish without CS on a basque-Spanish chatbot corpus. |
Universal Dependency Parsing for Hindi-English Code-Switching (N18-1)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching data often need additional processes such as language identification, normalization and/or back-transliteration to be processed. |
| Approach: | They propose a neural stacking model that leverages part-of-speech tags and syntactic tree annotations in tweets to parse code-switching data. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model is 1.5% better than the augmented model and 3.8% better than one which uses first-best normalization and/or back-transliteration. |
Analyzing the Role of Part-of-Speech in Code-Switching: A Corpus-Based Study (2024.findings-eacl)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CS) is a common linguistic phenomenon wherein speakers fluidly transition between languages in conversation. |
| Approach: | They propose to use a part-of-speech (POS)-based analysis of Spanish-English and Mandarin-English corpora to examine the propensity of bilinguals to engage in CS. |
| Outcome: | The findings confirm the existence of a statistically significant connection between POS and the likelihood of CS across language pairs, but show that it diminishes as tokens distance themselves from CS instances. |
CoCoa: An Encoder-Decoder Model for Controllable Code-switched Generation (2022.emnlp-main)
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| Challenge: | Generating code-switched text with fine-grained control on the degree of code-witching and the lexical choices used to convey formality has been well-explored. |
| Approach: | They propose to generate code-switched text with fine-grained control on the degree of code-changing and lexical choices used to convey formality. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model can be invoked at test-time to synthesize code-switched text faithful to syntactic and lexical attributes relevant to code-witching. |
Detecting de minimis Code-Switching in Historical German Books (2020.coling-main)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching has drawn scholarly attention in computational linguistics and natural language processing from many different perspectives. |
| Approach: | They propose to compare informal code-switching to its appearance in more formal registers by annotating and inspecting the German textarchives. |
| Outcome: | The proposed classifiers can help reduce errors when speech recognition is applied to a large corpus with rare embedded languages. |
Improving Language Identification for Code-Switched Speech: The Pivotal Role of Accented English (2026.findings-eacl)
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| Challenge: | Existing models fail to identify English spoken with the accent of the matrix (dominant) language. |
| Approach: | They propose to fine tune existing LID models with accented English to improve code-switched LID . they use a metric that captures relative ranking of identified languages often overlooked by traditional metrics. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model can be fine tuned with small amounts of accented English without degrading performance on monolingual speech. |
Code-Mixed Probes Show How Pre-Trained Models Generalise on Code-Switched Text (2024.lrec-main)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a prevalent linguistic phenomenon in which multilingual individuals seamlessly alternate between languages. |
| Approach: | They propose to use pre-trained language models to generalise to code-switched text . they use a dataset of well-formed naturalistic code-witched texts and parallel translations into the source languages to examine their results. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model generalises to code-switched text, shedding light on their ability to generalise representations to CS corpora. |
GLUECoS: An Evaluation Benchmark for Code-Switched NLP (2020.acl-main)
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| Challenge: | Recent studies show multilingual contextual embedding models perform better on cross-lingual and multilingual tasks. |
| Approach: | They propose to evaluate multilingual contextual embedding models on multilingual data . they use language identification from text, POS tagging, Named Entity Recognition and Question Answering . |
| Outcome: | The proposed benchmark evaluates models on language identification from text, POS tagging, Named Entity Recognition, Question Answering and a new task for code-switching, Natural Language Inference. |
Methods of Automatic Matrix Language Determination for Code-Switched Speech (2024.emnlp-main)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CS) is the process of speakers switching between two or more languages in spoken or written language. |
| Approach: | They propose to use the Matrix Language Frame theory to describe CS speech . they compare MLID of English/Mandarin and English/Spanish CS to acoustic language identity . |
| Outcome: | The proposed models outperform monolingual models in acoustic language identity recognition tasks. |
Part-of-Speech Tagging for Code-Switched, Transliterated Texts without Explicit Language Identification (D18-1)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a challenge for NLP due to the lack of representative data for training models. |
| Approach: | They propose a model that is trained exclusively on monolingual resources but can be applied to unseen code-switched text at inference time. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model outperforms standard models on Hindi-English part-of-speech tagging and on unannotated code-switched text with alternate scripts. |
PolyWER: A Holistic Evaluation Framework for Code-Switched Speech Recognition (2024.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Existing methods for measuring accuracy, such as Word Error Rate (WER), are too strict to address this challenge. |
| Approach: | They propose a framework for evaluating speech recognition systems to handle language-mixing by appending annotations to a publicly available Arabic-English code-switched dataset. |
| Outcome: | The proposed framework evaluates speech recognition systems against human judgement and a publicly available Arabic-English code-switched dataset. |
Switch Point biased Self-Training: Re-purposing Pretrained Models for Code-Switching (2021.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CS) is a phenomenon of switching between multiple languages . current models cannot handle CS due to lack of annotated data and limited resources. |
| Approach: | They propose a self-training method to repurpose existing models using a switch-point bias by leveraging unannotated data to reduce the gap between the switch point performance and retain overall performance on two distinct language pairs. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model reduces the gap between the switch point performance while retaining the overall performance on two distinct language pairs. |
Late Fusion of Transformers for Sentiment Analysis of Code-Switched Data (2023.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a common phenomenon in multilingual communities . however, sentiment analysis of code-switch data is elusive and unexplored . |
| Approach: | They propose to combine two transformers using logits of their output and feed them to a neural network for sentiment analysis. |
| Outcome: | The proposed system achieves an F1 score of 73.66% for English-Hi and 61.24% for English . it outperforms the best model reported for the GLUECoS benchmark dataset. |
Automatic Identification of Code-Switching Functions in Speech Transcripts (2023.findings-acl)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching, or switching between languages, occurs for many reasons and has important linguistic, sociological, and cultural implications. |
| Approach: | They build a system to identify a wide range of functions for which speakers code-switch in everyday speech with an accuracy of 75% . they use a dataset of Hindi-English code-witched data to analyze their results . |
| Outcome: | The proposed system can identify a wide range of functions for which speakers code-switch in everyday speech, with an accuracy of 75% across all functions. |
Cairo Student Code-Switch (CSCS) Corpus: An Annotated Egyptian Arabic-English Corpus (2020.lrec-1)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching is a phenomenon commonly observed in the Arabicspeaking world . there is still a huge gap in the available resources and NLP applications . |
| Approach: | They propose a corpus of Egyptian- Arabic code-switch speech data that is fully tokenized, lemmatized and annotated for part-of-speech tags. |
| Outcome: | The proposed corpus of Egyptian- Arabic code-switch speech data is fully tokenized, lemmatized and annotated for part-of-speech tags. |
GupShup: Summarizing Open-Domain Code-Switched Conversations (2021.emnlp-main)
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Laiba Mehnaz, Debanjan Mahata, Rakesh Gosangi, Uma Sushmitha Gunturi, Riya Jain, Gauri Gupta, Amardeep Kumar, Isabelle G. Lee, Anish Acharya, Rajiv Ratn Shah
| Challenge: | Abstractive summarization is the process of generating a condensed version of a given conversation while preserving the most salient aspects. |
| Approach: | They propose to use a dataset to analyze code-switched conversations in Hindi and English to summarize them. |
| Outcome: | The proposed dataset contains over 6,800 code-switched conversations and their corresponding human-annotated summaries in English (En) and Hi-En. |
CoSTA: Code-Switched Speech Translation using Aligned Speech-Text Interleaving (2025.coling-main)
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| Challenge: | More than half of the world's population is presumed to be bilingual . spoken translation of code-switched speech has been under-explored . |
| Approach: | They propose an end-to-end model architecture CoSTA that scaffolds on pretrained ASR and MT modules. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model outperforms existing models by 3.5 BLEU points in spoken translation of code-switched speech. |
Improving Code-switched ASR with Linguistic Information (2022.coling-1)
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| Challenge: | Existing studies on code-switching have been limited to the individual languages, but the results are promising. |
| Approach: | They propose to apply linguistic theories to generate more realistic code-switching text, which is needed for language modelling in ASR. |
| Outcome: | The proposed system improves 2% on English-Spanish code-switching . Equivalence Constraint theory and part-of-speech labelling are particularly helpful for text generation and bring 2% improvement to ASR performance. |
Code-Switching Information Retrieval: Benchmarks, Analysis, and the Limits of Current Retrievers (2026.findings-acl)
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Qingcheng Zeng, Yuheng Lu, Zeqi Zhou, Heli Qi, Puxuan Yu, Fuheng Zhao, Hitomi Yanaka, Weihao Xuan, Naoto Yokoya
| Challenge: | a new study examines the performance of code-switching IR in monolingual contexts . code-witching is a pervasive linguistic phenomenon in global communication . |
| Approach: | They propose a benchmark to evaluate code-switching IR in monolingual contexts . they propose CS-MTEB, which measures performance declines of up to 27% . |
| Outcome: | The proposed benchmark shows that code-switching performance is degraded by 27% . the proposed benchmark is based on a dataset of mixed-language queries . |
Grammatical Error Correction for Code-Switched Sentences by Learners of English (2024.lrec-main)
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| Challenge: | Existing grammar error correction systems have been trained on monolingual data and not developed for CSW text. |
| Approach: | They propose a method of generating synthetic CSW GEC datasets by translating different spans of text within existing GEC corpora and investigate different methods of selecting these spans based on CSW ratio, switch-point factor and linguistic constraints. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model achieves an average increase of 1.57 F0.5 across 3 CSW test sets (English-Chinese, English-Korean and English-Japanese) without affecting the model’s performance on a monolingual dataset. |
UniCoM: A Universal Code-Switching Speech Generator (2025.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CS) is a common phenomenon in real-world conversations and poses significant challenges for multilingual speech technology. |
| Approach: | They propose a pipeline for generating high-quality, natural CS samples without altering sentence semantics. |
| Outcome: | The proposed pipeline generates high-quality, natural CS samples without altering sentence semantics without alteration of sentence semantic. |
ASCEND: A Spontaneous Chinese-English Dataset for Code-switching in Multi-turn Conversation (2022.lrec-1)
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Holy Lovenia, Samuel Cahyawijaya, Genta Winata, Peng Xu, Yan Xu, Zihan Liu, Rita Frieske, Tiezheng Yu, Wenliang Dai, Elham J. Barezi, Qifeng Chen, Xiaojuan Ma, Bertram Shi, Pascale Fung
| Challenge: | Code-switching is a speech phenomenon occurring when a speaker switches language during a conversation. |
| Approach: | They propose to collect Mandarin Chinese-English code-switching corpus from read speech rather than spontaneous speech to address this phenomenon. |
| Outcome: | ASCEND consists of 10.62 hours of clean speech, collected from 23 bilingual speakers of Chinese and English. |
Parsing the Switch: LLM-Based UD Annotation for Complex Code-Switched and Low-Resource Languages (2025.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Existing approaches to analyzing code-switched data are limited in their ability to generalize to multilingual and mixed-language inputs. |
| Approach: | They propose a large-language model-based annotation pipeline to produce UD annotations for code-switched text. |
| Outcome: | The proposed pipeline outperforms existing parsers and baselines in syntactic analysis. |
Code-Switching Metrics Using Intonation Units (2023.emnlp-main)
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| Challenge: | Existing measures of code-switching (CS) complexity are word-based, meaning any word is equally likely to switch between any two words. |
| Approach: | They adapt two NLP metrics, multilinguality and CS probability, and put forward Intonation Units (IUs) as basic tokens for transcribed bilingual speech. |
| Outcome: | The proposed measures account for prosodic and prosodic constraints on CS in bilingual speech. |
Discourse-Driven Code-Switching: Analyzing the Role of Content and Communicative Function in Spanish-English Bilingual Speech (2025.emnlp-main)
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| Challenge: | Prior work has shown that a range of speaker and listener attributes affect or correlate with the prevalence of code-switching during conversation. |
| Approach: | They analyze the names of entities and dialogue acts present in a Spanish-English spontaneous speech corpus and build a predictive model of CSW. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model is the first to take a discourse-sensitive approach to understanding pragmatic and referential cues of bilingual speech. |
Can Code-Switched Texts Activate a Knowledge Switch in LLMs? A Case Study on English-Korean Code-Switching (2025.findings-emnlp)
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| Challenge: | Recent large language models (LLMs) demonstrate multilingual abilities, yet they are English-centric due to dominance of English in training corpora. |
| Approach: | They propose to use a synthetic English-korean CS question-answering dataset to investigate this potential. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model can activate, identify and leverage knowledge for reasoning in low-resource languages. |
Dialectal Coverage And Generalization in Arabic Speech Recognition (2025.acl-long)
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| Challenge: | Existing ASR systems cover the modern standard Arabic variety but fail to cover the multitude of spoken variants. |
| Approach: | They propose a suite of automatic speech recognition models optimized to recognize multiple variants of spoken Arabic. |
| Outcome: | The proposed models show coverage and performance gains compared to prior models. |
AfroCS-xs: Creating a Compact, High-Quality, Human-Validated Code-Switched Dataset for African Languages (2025.acl-long)
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Kayode Olaleye, Arturo Oncevay, Mathieu Sibue, Nombuyiselo Zondi, Michelle Terblanche, Sibongile Mapikitla, Richard Lastrucci, Charese Smiley, Vukosi Marivate
| Challenge: | AfroCS-xs is a low-quality dataset for code-switching in multilingual communities . code-witching is prevalent in multicultural societies but lacks high-quality data for model development . |
| Approach: | They propose to use human-validated synthetic code-switched datasets to generate code-witched sentences for four African languages and English within a specific domain—agriculture. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model improves translation accuracy on the high-quality dataset for four African languages and English within a specific domain—agriculture. |
Lost in the Mix: Evaluating LLM Understanding of Code-Switched Text (2026.acl-long)
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| Challenge: | Code-switching (CSW) is widespread in multilingual communities and increasingly prevalent in online content. |
| Approach: | They propose a pipeline for producing linguistically grounded CSW variants of established benchmarks across five typologically diverse languages. |
| Outcome: | The proposed model sets show that inserting non-English tokens into English reduces accuracy on comprehension and reasoning benchmarks, whereas embedding English into non- English contexts often improves it. |
OLA: Output Language Alignment in Code-Switched LLM Interactions (2026.acl-long)
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| Challenge: | Existing LLMs that code-switch between languages often fail to align with user's implicit language expectation, causing responses to be in undesired languages. |
| Approach: | They propose a benchmark to evaluate LLMs’ Output Language Alignment in code-switched interactions. |
| Outcome: | The proposed benchmark evaluates LLMs’ Output Language Alignment in code-switched interactions. |