Challenge: Recent large language models (LLMs) demonstrate multilingual abilities, yet they are English-centric due to dominance of English in training corpora.
Approach: They propose to use a synthetic English-korean CS question-answering dataset to investigate this potential.
Outcome: The proposed model can activate, identify and leverage knowledge for reasoning in low-resource languages.

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Investigating and Scaling up Code-Switching for Multilingual Language Model Pre-Training (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Large language models (LLMs) exhibit remarkable multilingual capabilities despite the extreme language imbalance in the pre-training data.
Approach: They investigate the existence of code-switching in the pre-training corpus and categorize it into four types within two quadrants.
Outcome: The proposed approach improves performance across benchmarks and representation space.
Lost in the Mix: Evaluating LLM Understanding of Code-Switched Text (2026.acl-long)

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Challenge: Code-switching (CSW) is widespread in multilingual communities and increasingly prevalent in online content.
Approach: They propose a pipeline for producing linguistically grounded CSW variants of established benchmarks across five typologically diverse languages.
Outcome: The proposed model sets show that inserting non-English tokens into English reduces accuracy on comprehension and reasoning benchmarks, whereas embedding English into non- English contexts often improves it.
Multilingual Large Language Models Are Not (Yet) Code-Switchers (2023.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing multilingual Large Language Models are not specifically trained with objectives for managing code-switching scenarios.
Approach: They propose to use multilingual Large Language Models to perform sentiment analysis, machine translation, summarization and word-level language identification to compare their performance to fine-tuned models of much smaller scales.
Outcome: The proposed models show that they underperform in comparison to fine-tuned models of much smaller scales.
Code-Switching Red-Teaming: LLM Evaluation for Safety and Multilingual Understanding (2025.acl-long)

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Challenge: Recent large language models (LLMs) are inherently multilingual agents . concerns regarding their safety have emerged .
Approach: They propose a framework to synthesize red-teaming queries and investigate their safety . they demonstrate that the framework outperforms existing red- teaming techniques .
Outcome: The proposed framework outperforms existing red-teaming techniques in the safety domain . it generates code-switching attack prompts in monolingual data .
Evaluating Code-Switching Translation with Large Language Models (2024.lrec-main)

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Challenge: Recent advances in large language models (LLMs) have shown they can match or surpass finetuned models on many natural language processing tasks.
Approach: They propose to use in-context learning and pivot translation to improve code-switching translation.
Outcome: The proposed models show strong ability for cross-lingual understanding in a code-switching setting.
Beyond Monolingual Assumptions: A Survey on Code-Switched NLP in the Era of Large Language Models across Modalities (2026.acl-long)

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Challenge: Amidst the rapid advances of large language models, most LLMs struggle with mixed-language inputs, limited Code-switching datasets, and evaluation biases.
Approach: They propose a roadmap for inclusive datasets, fair evaluation, and linguistically grounded models to achieve truly multilingual intelligence.
Outcome: The proposed frameworks are based on 327 studies spanning five research areas, 15+ NLP tasks, 30+ datasets, and 80+ languages.
Can Activation Steering Generalize Across Languages? A Study on Syllogistic Reasoning in Language Models (2026.eacl-long)

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Challenge: Prior work has focused on activation steering for Large Language Models (LLMs) this technique can be used to improve reasoning accuracy and transferability across languages.
Approach: They propose to use activation steering to steer models towards a cross-lingual reasoning space.
Outcome: The proposed techniques generalise well to multilingual datasets while minimizing language modelling performance.
Minimal Pair-Based Evaluation of Code-Switching (2025.acl-long)

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Challenge: Existing methods do not have wide language coverage, fail to account for the diverse range of CS phenomena, or do not scale.
Approach: They propose to use minimal pairs of CS to estimate the extent to which large language models (LLMs) use code-switching in the same way as bilinguals.
Outcome: The proposed model assigns higher probability to the naturally occurring CS sentence than to the variant for every language pair.
MIGRATE: Cross-Lingual Adaptation of Domain-Specific LLMs through Code-Switching and Embedding Transfer (2025.coling-main)

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Challenge: Large Language Models (LLMs) have advanced in many fields, but focus on English-centric models requires extensive data.
Approach: They propose a method that leverages open-source static embedding models and up to 3 million tokens of code-switching data to facilitate the seamless transfer of embeddables to target languages.
Outcome: The proposed method outperforms baseline and existing cross-lingual transfer methods in target languages.
Code-Switching Curriculum Learning for Multilingual Transfer in LLMs (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Large language models (LLMs) exhibit near human-level performance in various tasks, but performance drops after a handful of high-resource languages due to the imbalance in pre-training data.
Approach: They propose a code-switching curriculum learning model to enhance cross-lingual transfer for LLMs by progressively training models with a curriculum consisting of token-level code-changing, sentence-level codeswitching, and monolingual corpora.
Outcome: The proposed model improves language transfer to Korean, with significant gains in Japanese and Indonesian . the proposed model mitigates spurious correlations between language resources and safety alignment .

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