Challenge: Fig. 1 shows how text-only and image-only models can capture commonsense visual attributes, but reporting bias affects their performance.
Approach: They use a Visual Commonsense Tests dataset to validate their findings . they find multimodal models better reconstruct attribute distributions, but are still subject to reporting bias .
Outcome: The proposed model improves on the unimodal and multimodal models, but is still subject to reporting bias.

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What do Models Learn From Training on More Than Text? Measuring Visual Commonsense Knowledge (2022.acl-srw)

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Challenge: Existing evaluation methods to measure what language models learn from multimodal training are lacking.
Approach: They propose two evaluation tasks to measure commonsense knowledge in language models by using visual data to evaluate multimodal models and unimodal baselines.
Outcome: The proposed evaluation tasks show that training on a visual modality improves on the visual commonsense knowledge in language models.
Seeing What Tastes Good: Revisiting Multimodal Distributional Semantics in the Billion Parameter Era (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: danoneata, et al., 2021): human learning and conceptual representation is grounded in sensorimotor experience.
Approach: They evaluate image encoders and language-only models to learn which attributes are salient to the models.
Outcome: The proposed models outperform language-only models on attributes predicting extended denser McRae norms and newer Binder datasets.
VCD: A Dataset for Visual Commonsense Discovery in Images (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Visual commonsense data sets lack visual grounded representations of commonsensense . existing knowledge bases lack visual-based knowledge tied to actual visual scenes .
Approach: They present a large-scale visual commonsense dataset with over 100,000 images and 14 million object-commonsense pairs that integrates both Seen (directly observable) and Unseen (inferrable) commonsens.
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Understanding ME? Multimodal Evaluation for Fine-grained Visual Commonsense (2022.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing models that understand image and text but also cross-reference in-between are lacking in evaluation data resources.
Approach: They propose a multimodal evaluation pipeline to automatically generate question-answer pairs to test models’ understanding of the visual scene, text, and related knowledge.
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Are Visual-Linguistic Models Commonsense Knowledge Bases? (2022.coling-1)

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Challenge: PTLMs are used to extract knowledge from text on demand.
Approach: They compare visual-linguistic and language-only visual-language models in a zero-shot commonsense question answering inference task.
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The World of an Octopus: How Reporting Bias Influences a Language Model’s Perception of Color (2021.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Recent work has raised concerns about the inherent limitations of text-only pretraining.
Approach: They first generate a color dataset of human-perceived color distributions for 521 common objects and then use it to analyze and compare the color distribution found in text and the distribution captured by language models.
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LaMI: Augmenting Large Language Models via Late Multi-Image Fusion (2026.acl-short)

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Challenge: Large Language Models lack visual grounding on visual reasoning, despite training on text alone.
Approach: They propose a late multi-image fusion method that augments LLMs with test-time visual signals.
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Find Someone Who: Visual Commonsense Understanding in Human-Centric Grounding (2022.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Visual scenes often involve multiple people and humans can distinguish between them based on context descriptions about what happened before, their mental/physical states, and intentions.
Approach: They propose a task that tests human-centric commonsense grounding models' ability to distinguish individuals given context descriptions about what happened before and their mental/physical states or intentions.
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VLIS: Unimodal Language Models Guide Multimodal Language Generation (2023.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing vision-language models face challenges in tasks that require complex linguistic understanding.
Approach: They propose a framework that combines visual conditioning and linguistic understanding of unimodal text-only language models without further training to improve vision-language models.
Outcome: The proposed framework improves vision-language models on diverse tasks including commonsense understanding and complex text generation.
The Effects of Unimodal Representation Choices on Multimodal Learning (L18-1)

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Challenge: In the real world, multiple modes of information are gathered to create knowledge in a way humans can understand.
Approach: They propose to combine unimodal representations to map multiple modes of information to a single space . they argue that the way they are combined can affect performance and classification metrics .
Outcome: The proposed model can be used to correlate words in a textual description of an object with multimodal representations.

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