Challenge: Current annotation policies for medical corpora are not standardized across clinical texts of different types.
Approach: They propose to annotate medical records of various types using a named entity recognition (NER) task.
Outcome: The proposed annotation scheme is applicable to large-scale clinical NLP projects.

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Annotation of a Large Clinical Entity Corpus (D18-1)

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Challenge: Past researches have shown the superiority of statistical/ML approaches over the rule based approaches.
Approach: They propose to annotate a clinical domain annotated corpus using a small data set or a narrower domain to take full advantage of machine learning.
Outcome: The proposed corpus contains 5,160 clinical documents from forty different clinical specialties.
Can Synthetic Text Help Clinical Named Entity Recognition? A Study of Electronic Health Records in French (2023.eacl-main)

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Challenge: In sensitive domains, the sharing of corpora is restricted due to confidentiality, copyrights or trade secrets.
Approach: They use auto-regressive neural models to generate a clinical case corpus annotated with clinical entities and evaluate it for a named entity recognition task.
Outcome: The proposed model can produce clinical case corpus annotated with clinical entities while maintaining confidentiality.
A Corpus with Multi-Level Annotations of Patients, Interventions and Outcomes to Support Language Processing for Medical Literature (P18-1)

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Challenge: In 2015 alone, about 100 manuscripts describing randomized controlled trials for medical interventions were published every day.
Approach: They propose a corpus of 5,000 medical articles annotated with demarcations of text spans that describe the Patient population enrolled, the Interventions studied and to what they were Compared, and the Outcomes measured.
Outcome: The proposed corpus includes 5,000 medical articles describing clinical randomized controlled trials.
A Framework for Flexible Extraction of Clinical Event Contextual Properties from Electronic Health Records (2025.acl-industry)

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Challenge: EHRs contain vast amounts of valuable clinical data, stored as unstructured text.
Approach: They propose a method that uses existing NER+L methods to classify medical entities at scale using a named entity recognition and linking task.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms Bi-LSTM in minority class tasks with up to 28% of the time and 32% faster training time.
Named Entities in Medical Case Reports: Corpus and Experiments (2020.lrec-1)

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Challenge: Only very few annotated corpora in the medical domain exist.
Approach: They propose to annotate medical entities in case reports from PubMed Central's open access library.
Outcome: The proposed corpus is the first of its kind to be made available to the scientific community in English.
GGPONC 2.0 - The German Clinical Guideline Corpus for Oncology: Curation Workflow, Annotation Policy, Baseline NER Taggers (2022.lrec-1)

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Challenge: despite advances in language resources, there is still a shortage of annotated corpora covering (German) medical language.
Approach: They propose to build on clinical guidelines with an annotation scheme based on SNOMED CT . they also train named entity recognition models on the new data set .
Outcome: The new corpus can be built upon clinical guidelines with reasonable coverage of medical terminology.
Zero-shot Medical Entity Retrieval without Annotation: Learning From Rich Knowledge Graph Semantics (2021.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Current approaches to medical entity retrieval generalize poorly to unseen sub-specialties . zero-shot retrieval is challenging due to the high degree of ambiguity and variability in medical corpora .
Approach: They propose a set of learning tasks designed to train efficient zero-shot entity retrieval models.
Outcome: The proposed architecture outperforms common zero-shot benchmarks with 7% to 30% higher recall across multiple major medical ontologies.
MedCATTrainer: A Biomedical Free Text Annotation Interface with Active Learning and Research Use Case Specific Customisation (D19-3)

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Challenge: 80% of biomedical data is stored in unstructured text such as electronic health records (EHRs).
Approach: They propose a web-based interface for building, improving and customising a given Named Entity Recognition and Linking (NER+L) model for biomedical domain text.
Outcome: The proposed interface is designed to build, improve and customise a NER+L model for biomedical domain text and collate accurate research use case specific training data.
Entity Decomposition with Filtering: A Zero-Shot Clinical Named Entity Recognition Framework (2025.naacl-long)

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Challenge: Recent studies have demonstrated that large language models (LLMs) can perform in named entity recognition tasks.
Approach: They propose a framework for clinical named entity recognition that decomposes the entity recognition task into several retrievals of sub-types and then filters them.
Outcome: The proposed framework improves on the clinical named entity recognition task.
AnnoHID: LLM-Assisted Annotation Framework for Low-Resource Medical Texts (2026.acl-demo)

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Challenge: Social media platforms are a popular way to communicate with medical experts and improve health literacy.
Approach: They introduce a semi-automated annotation framework for medical texts in low-resource languages . they use large language models for pre-annotation and human validation to support efficient annotation .
Outcome: The proposed framework is applied to medical social media texts in Bahasa Indonesia . it yields higher inter-annotator agreement and human review improves output . future work focuses on mitigating pre-annotation bias and reducing annotation overhead .

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