Challenge: Labelled data is the foundation of most natural language processing tasks, but there are valid beliefs about what the correct data labels should be.
Approach: They propose two contrasting paradigms for data annotation that encourage annotator subjectivity . they propose a descriptive paradigm that allows for the surveying and modelling of different beliefs .
Outcome: The proposed paradigms encourage annotator subjectivity, while the prescriptive paradigm discourages it.

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The Perspectivist Paradigm Shift: Assumptions and Challenges of Capturing Human Labels (2024.naacl-long)

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Challenge: a line of recent work has illustrated that annotators disagree for many reasons . capturing disagreements can improve model performance and calibration, authors argue .
Approach: They propose a new paradigm shift in data labeling for machine learning that challenges annotator disagreement by treating disagreement as a valuable source of information.
Outcome: The proposed approaches challenge annotator disagreement and provide recommendations for the data labeling pipeline and avenues for future research.
D3CODE: Disentangling Disagreements in Data across Cultures on Offensiveness Detection and Evaluation (2024.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Recent studies on annotator subjectivity focus on Western contexts and only document differences across age, gender, or racial groups.
Approach: They propose a large-scale cross-cultural dataset of parallel annotations for offensive language in over 4.5K English sentences annotated by a pool of more than 4k annotators from 21 countries.
Outcome: The proposed dataset captures annotators’ moral values along six moral foundations: care, equality, proportionality, authority, loyalty, and purity.
Agreeing to Disagree: Annotating Offensive Language Datasets with Annotators’ Disagreement (2021.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: supervised learning is a key component of offensive language detection, but there is little attention given to the quality of annotated data.
Approach: They propose to examine the level of agreement among annotators while selecting data to create offensive language datasets, a task involving a high level of subjectivity.
Outcome: The proposed datasets show that annotators' agreement has a strong effect on classifiers performance and robustness.
Why Don’t You Do It Right? Analysing Annotators’ Disagreement in Subjective Tasks (2023.eacl-main)

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Challenge: Disagreement can reflect different aspects of linguistic annotation, from annotators’ subjectivity to sloppiness or lack of context to interpret a text.
Approach: They propose a taxonomy of possible reasons leading to annotators' disagreement in subjective tasks and manually label part of a Twitter dataset for offensive language detection in english following this taxonomies.
Outcome: The proposed taxonomy of disagreements in linguistic datasets can be used to assess how accurate tweets belonging to different disagreement categories can be classified as offensive or not.
Corpus Considerations for Annotator Modeling and Scaling (2024.naacl-long)

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Challenge: Recent trends in natural language processing and annotation tasks emphasize individual perspectives . annotator models that rely on a single ground truth may disregard valuable minority perspectives omissions .
Approach: They propose a composite embedding approach to investigate annotator modeling techniques . they show that the commonly used user token model consistently outperforms more complex models .
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms more complex models on a given dataset.
Are We Modeling the Task or the Annotator? An Investigation of Annotator Bias in Natural Language Understanding Datasets (D19-1)

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Challenge: Having only a few workers generate the majority of dataset examples raises concerns about data diversity .
Approach: They perform a series of experiments to investigate annotator biases in recent NLU datasets . they find that models are able to recognize the most productive annotators .
Outcome: The results show that models can recognize the most productive annotators and do not generalize well to examples from annotator that did not contribute to the training set.
A Comparison Of Emotion Annotation Schemes And A New Annotated Data Set (L18-1)

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Challenge: a series of study on positive/negative sentiments has been conducted on tweets, but recognition of more nuanced affect has received little attention . valence, arousal, dominance and surprise are the most commonly used emotion representation schemes .
Approach: They propose to annotate tweets with scores on four emotion dimensions . they compare annotator agreement with relative annotation schemes over categorical ones .
Outcome: The proposed model improves agreement with relative annotation schemes over categorical ones on Ekman's six basic emotions.
The Promises and Pitfalls of LLM Annotations in Dataset Labeling: a Case Study on Media Bias Detection (2025.findings-naacl)

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Challenge: Recent research suggests using Large Language Models (LLMs) to automate the annotation process, reducing these costs while maintaining data quality.
Approach: They propose to use Large Language Models to automate annotation process and train classifiers on large datasets.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms all of the annotator LLMs on two media bias benchmark datasets (BABE and BASIL) while maintaining data quality.
You Are What You Annotate: Towards Better Models through Annotator Representations (2023.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Annotator disagreement is ubiquitous in natural language processing tasks.
Approach: They propose to model annotators' idiosyncrasies and account for their idioms by creating representations for each annotator and their annotations.
Outcome: The proposed model improves on an existing dataset with eight annotators with inherent disagreements while increasing model size by 1%.
Toxic, Hateful, Offensive or Abusive? What Are We Really Classifying? An Empirical Analysis of Hate Speech Datasets (2020.lrec-1)

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Challenge: a recent study shows that many definitions are being used for equivalent concepts, making most datasets incompatible.
Approach: They analyze six publicly available datasets to determine their similarity and compatibility . they propose to use Fast Text word vectors to analyze similarity between different datasets .
Outcome: The proposed model performs better on similar datasets and worse on more non-offensive samples.

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