Challenge: toxicity classifiers rely on lexical cues, so creative language use can be detrimental to utility of current corpora and state-of-the-art models.
Approach: They propose to use model-agnostic adversarial behavior to enhance toxic content classification models.
Outcome: The proposed model-agnostic adversarial behavior and augmentation for cyberbullying detection are robust against word-level perturbations at a slight trade-off in overall task performance.

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Are Language Models Agnostic to Linguistically Grounded Perturbations? A Case Study of Indic Languages (2025.findings-naacl)

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Challenge: Existing studies do not focus on linguistically grounded attacks, but pre-trained models are susceptible to these perturbations.
Approach: They propose to examine whether pre-trained language models are agnostic to linguistically grounded attacks . they find that PLMs are less susceptible to linguistic perturbations than non-linguistic ones .
Outcome: The proposed model is agnostic to linguistically grounded attacks, but is less susceptible to linguist attacks than non-linguistic models.
On the Robustness of Offensive Language Classifiers (2022.acl-long)

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Challenge: Existing studies on offensive language classifiers have focused on primitive attacks such as misspellings and extraneous spaces.
Approach: They analyze the robustness of offensive language classifiers against crafty adversarial attacks that leverage greedy- and attention-based word selection and context-aware embeddings for word replacement.
Outcome: The proposed classifiers are robust against more crafty attacks that leverage greedy- and attention-based word selection and context-aware embeddings for word replacement.
Towards Building a Robust Toxicity Predictor (2023.acl-industry)

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Challenge: Recent studies have focused on robustness of toxicity language predictors, but this is problematic for real-world toxicity detection.
Approach: They propose a novel adversarial attack that exploits greedy search strategies to fool toxic text classifiers.
Outcome: The proposed attack can detect weaker toxicity language detectors even against unseen attacks.
ModelCitizens: Representing Community Voices in Online Safety (2025.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing toxic language detection models are trained on annotations that collapse diverse perspectives into a single ground truth.
Approach: They propose to augment social media posts with conversational scenarios to reflect the impact of conversational context on toxicity.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms existing models on social media with conversational scenarios.
Impact of Adversarial Training on Robustness and Generalizability of Language Models (2023.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Adversarial training is widely acknowledged as the most effective defense against adversarial attacks, but achieving both robustness and generalization requires a trade-off.
Approach: They propose to compare pre-training data augmentation and training time input perturbations with embedding space perturbations to find out whether they improve generalization.
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Close or Cloze? Assessing the Robustness of Large Language Models to Adversarial Perturbations via Word Recovery (2025.coling-main)

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Challenge: Existing models implicitly recover the original text, but it is unclear when they rely on context and when they implicitly do so.
Approach: They propose to use a dictionary to recover adversarial words by using a phonetic, typo, and visual attack to study word recovery performance.
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LexicalAT: Lexical-Based Adversarial Reinforcement Training for Robust Sentiment Classification (D19-1)

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Challenge: Existing text classification models are fragile and sensitive to simple perturbations.
Approach: They propose a generator-classifier adversarial training approach to improve classification models . they use a large-scale lexical knowledge base to generate attacking examples .
Outcome: The proposed approach outperforms strong baselines and reduces test errors on neural networks.
It’s Morphin’ Time! Combating Linguistic Discrimination with Inflectional Perturbations (2020.acl-main)

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Challenge: Existing work on societal bias in NLP focuses on race and gender . linguistic background is a unique attribute that has been largely ignored in the field .
Approach: They examine linguistic background to craft plausible adversarial examples that expose biases in popular NLP models.
Outcome: The proposed model improves robustness without sacrificing performance on clean data.
ToxiCloakCN: Evaluating Robustness of Offensive Language Detection in Chinese with Cloaking Perturbations (2024.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing large language models struggle with systematically perturbed data designed to evade detection mechanisms.
Approach: They propose a large language model with homophonic substitutions and emoji transformations to test their models' robustness against cloaking perturbations.
Outcome: The proposed model underperforms in detecting offensive content when perturbations are applied to Chinese language datasets.
Evaluating Neural Model Robustness for Machine Comprehension (2021.eacl-main)

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Challenge: evaluating model robustness to adversarial attacks can provide deeper understanding of how deep neural networks work and what kind of linguistic information is actually captured by neural networks.
Approach: They propose a method for strategic sentence-level perturbations to evaluate model robustness to adversarial attacks using character and word perturbations.
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