Challenge: toxicity detection in French remains underdeveloped due to the lack of culturally relevant, human-annotated, large-scale datasets.
Approach: They propose a method that generalizes French online comments using a semi-automated annotation pipeline that reduces manual labeling to only 10% through high-confidence LLM-based pre-annotation and human verification.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms GPT-4o and DeepSeek-R1 on the benchmark while maintaining cross-lingual capabilities.

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FuxiTranyu: A Multilingual Large Language Model Trained with Balanced Data (2024.emnlp-industry)

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Challenge: Large language models exhibit significant performance discrepancies between high- and low-resource languages.
Approach: They present an open-source multilingual LLM with 8 billion parameters and a multilingual instruction dataset.
Outcome: The proposed model achieves consistent multilingual representations across languages.
ModelCitizens: Representing Community Voices in Online Safety (2025.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing toxic language detection models are trained on annotations that collapse diverse perspectives into a single ground truth.
Approach: They propose to augment social media posts with conversational scenarios to reflect the impact of conversational context on toxicity.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms existing models on social media with conversational scenarios.
Realistic Evaluation of Toxicity in Large Language Models (2024.findings-acl)

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Challenge: a large amount of data exposes large language models to toxicity and bias . prompt engineering can be easily bypassed with minimal prompt engineering.
Approach: They propose a dataset that uses manually crafted prompts to nullify protective layers of large language models.
Outcome: The proposed dataset shows that prompts can nullify protective layers of large language models.
A Survey of Toxicity Mitigation Strategies for Multilingual Language Models (2026.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Large language models can reproduce and amplify toxic content, including hate speech, harassment, and bias.
Approach: They propose a comprehensive survey of the many detoxification methods tailored to multilingual LLMs.
Outcome: The proposed methods are based on data filtering, style transfer, expert-based logit steering, retrieval augmentation, and human feedback.
WaterBench: Towards Holistic Evaluation of Watermarks for Large Language Models (2024.acl-long)

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Challenge: Recent studies have developed watermarking algorithms which restrict the generation process to leave an invisible trace for watermark detection.
Approach: They propose a benchmarking procedure that compares different methods to ensure consistent watermarking strength and jointly evaluates their generation and detection performance.
Outcome: The proposed benchmark compares 4 open-source watermarks on 2 LLMs under 2 watermarking strengths and observes the common struggles for current methods on maintaining the generation quality.
ToxiGen: A Large-Scale Machine-Generated Dataset for Adversarial and Implicit Hate Speech Detection (2022.acl-long)

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Challenge: Toxic language detection systems often falsely flag text that contains minority group mentions as toxic . this over-reliance on spurious correlations also causes systems to struggle with detecting implicitly toxic language.
Approach: They develop a machine-generated dataset of toxic and benign statements about 13 minority groups that generates subtly toxic and harmless text with a massive pretrained language model.
Outcome: The proposed method can detect toxic and benign statements on a large scale . it can also detect hate speech on 94.5% of the toxic examples .
Exploring Multimodal Challenges in Toxic Chinese Detection: Taxonomy, Benchmark, and Findings (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: Recent studies show that character substitutions in toxic Chinese text can confuse state-of-the-art LLMs.
Approach: They propose a taxonomy of 3 perturbation strategies and 8 specific approaches in Chinese text to assess if they can detect perturbed Chinese toxic contents.
Outcome: The proposed model can detect perturbed Chinese text with 8 different approaches . the proposed model is compared with 9 other LLMs from the US and China .
Facilitating Fine-grained Detection of Chinese Toxic Language: Hierarchical Taxonomy, Resources, and Benchmarks (2023.acl-long)

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Challenge: Existing datasets suffer from a lack of fine-grained annotations, such as the toxic type and expressions with indirect toxicity.
Approach: They propose a benchmark model to detect toxic language by incorporating lexical features into a Chinese dataset to facilitate fine-grained annotations.
Outcome: The proposed model is based on insulting vocabulary containing implicit profanity and is able to detect toxic language with lexical features.
MEGAVERSE: Benchmarking Large Language Models Across Languages, Modalities, Models and Tasks (2024.naacl-long)

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Challenge: Several new LLMs have been introduced necessitating their evaluation on non-English languages.
Approach: They perform a thorough evaluation of the non-English capabilities of SoTA LLMs by comparing them on the same set of multilingual datasets.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms models on multilingual datasets on 22 languages including low-resource African languages.
Challenges in Detoxifying Language Models (2021.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Prior work often relies on automatic evaluation of LM toxicity.
Approach: They evaluate toxicity mitigation strategies for automated and human evaluations . they find human raters disagree with high automatic toxicity scores after strong toxicity reduction interventions .
Outcome: The proposed methods reduce LM toxicity but lower coverage for marginalized texts . human raters disagree with high toxicity scores after strong toxicity reduction interventions .

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