Challenge: Existing approaches to label aggregation fail to capture subjective annotations and can lead to biases.
Approach: They propose annotator-aware representations for text for subjective classification tasks that involve learning representations of annotators.
Outcome: The proposed model improves on metrics that assess the performance on capturing individual annotators’ perspectives.

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Subjective Crowd Disagreements for Subjective Data: Uncovering Meaningful CrowdOpinion with Population-level Learning (2023.acl-long)

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Challenge: Annotator disagreements are resolved before learning takes place, but researchers question the performance of a system when annotators disagree.
Approach: They propose a method that uses language features and label distributions to pool similar items into larger labels.
Outcome: The proposed method is based on five publicly available datasets with varying levels of disagreements on social media and in the wild using a dataset from Facebook.
Toward Annotator Group Bias in Crowdsourcing (2022.acl-long)

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Challenge: Annotator group bias is a common problem in crowdsourcing, but is often overlooked .
Approach: They propose a probabilistic framework to capture annotator group bias using an extended Expectation Maximization algorithm.
Outcome: The proposed model can model annotator group bias over competitive datasets and demonstrate that it is effective over multiple datasets.
Exploring the Cost-Effectiveness of Perspective Taking in Crowdsourcing Subjective Assessment: A Case Study of Toxicity Detection (2025.naacl-long)

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Challenge: toxicity evaluation tasks require annotations to accurately reflect opinions of subgroups . toxicity tasks require annotators to take the opinions of a subgroup simultaneously .
Approach: They propose to use perspective taking to obtain opinions from subgroups . they propose to prompt annotators to take perspectives of contrasting subgroup simultaneously .
Outcome: The proposed approach can be cost-effective and improve quality under limited budget.
Dealing with Disagreements: Looking Beyond the Majority Vote in Subjective Annotations (2022.tacl-1)

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Challenge: Annotators may systematically disagree with one another, reflecting their individual biases and values, especially in the case of subjective tasks such as detecting affect, aggression, and hate speech.
Approach: They propose to combine multi-annotator models with multi-task based approaches to resolve disagreements between annotations and derive single ground truth labels.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms majority voting and averaging methods and estimates uncertainty in predictions.
When the Majority is Wrong: Modeling Annotator Disagreement for Subjective Tasks (2023.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: a number of studies have questioned assumptions of majority vote aggregated labels.
Approach: They construct a model that predicts individual annotator ratings on potentially offensive text and combines this information with the predicted target group of the text to predict the ratings of target group members.
Outcome: The proposed model raises performance over baseline by 22% and 33% at predicting variance among annotators.
Are We Modeling the Task or the Annotator? An Investigation of Annotator Bias in Natural Language Understanding Datasets (D19-1)

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Challenge: Having only a few workers generate the majority of dataset examples raises concerns about data diversity .
Approach: They perform a series of experiments to investigate annotator biases in recent NLU datasets . they find that models are able to recognize the most productive annotators .
Outcome: The results show that models can recognize the most productive annotators and do not generalize well to examples from annotator that did not contribute to the training set.
Learning from Measurements in Crowdsourcing Models: Inferring Ground Truth from Diverse Annotation Types (C18-1)

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Challenge: Annotated corpora are often assigned to internet workers whose judgments are reconciled by crowdsourcing models.
Approach: They propose a framework for learning from rich prior knowledge to combine annotations with different structures.
Outcome: The proposed model compares favorably with previous work and enables active sample selection to reduce annotation effort.
Cost-Efficient Subjective Task Annotation and Modeling through Few-Shot Annotator Adaptation (2024.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: In subjective tasks, the inclusion of diverse annotators is crucial as their unique perspectives significantly influence the annotations.
Approach: They propose a framework that minimizes the annotation budget while maximizing the predictive performance for each annotator.
Outcome: The proposed framework surpasses the previous SOTA in capturing the annotators’ individual perspectives with as little as 25% of the original annotation budget on two datasets.
Voices in a Crowd: Searching for clusters of unique perspectives (2024.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Proposed solutions aim to capture minority perspectives by either modelling annotator disagreements or grouping annotators based on shared metadata.
Approach: They propose a framework that trains models without encoding annotator metadata and creates clusters of similar opinions, that are called voices.
Outcome: The proposed framework captures minority perspectives based on demographic factors in two distinct datasets while also capturing majority perspectives.
You Are What You Annotate: Towards Better Models through Annotator Representations (2023.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Annotator disagreement is ubiquitous in natural language processing tasks.
Approach: They propose to model annotators' idiosyncrasies and account for their idioms by creating representations for each annotator and their annotations.
Outcome: The proposed model improves on an existing dataset with eight annotators with inherent disagreements while increasing model size by 1%.

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