Challenge: Recent years have seen the advent of large language models characterized by emergent capabilities arising from sheer scale alone.
Approach: They propose to use a multilingual model to compare performance to the English-only model by ablation at the billion-parameter scale.
Outcome: The proposed model is based on a multilingual model and its performance against the English-only model.

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Challenge: Generative Pre-trained Transformers (GPTs) have been scaled to unprecedented sizes in the history of machine learning.
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Learning Deep Transformer Models for Machine Translation (P19-1)

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Challenge: Neural machine translation models have advanced the previous state-of-the-art by learning mappings between sequences via neural networks and attention mechanisms.
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Transformers: State-of-the-Art Natural Language Processing (2020.emnlp-demos)

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Challenge: Transformers is an open-source library that aims to open up advances in natural language processing to the wider machine learning community.
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Life after BERT: What do Other Muppets Understand about Language? (2022.acl-long)

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Challenge: Existing pre-trained transformer analysis studies focus on one or two model families at a time, overlooking the variability of the architecture and pre-training objectives.
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When Do You Need Billions of Words of Pretraining Data? (2021.acl-long)

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Challenge: Pretrained language models (LMs) are dominated by models that can encode billions of words.
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Lessons Learned from GPT-SW3: Building the First Large-Scale Generative Language Model for Swedish (2022.lrec-1)

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Challenge: a prerequisite for building large-scale generative models for other languages is access to large amounts of high-quality text data and powerful computational resources.
Approach: They present a 3.5 billion parameter autoregressive language model, trained on a 100 GB Swedish corpus.
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LOLA – An Open-Source Massively Multilingual Large Language Model (2025.coling-main)

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Challenge: Using a sparse Mixture-of-Experts Transformer architecture, our model is highly efficient and efficient across languages.
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Unsupervised Cross-lingual Representation Learning at Scale (2020.acl-main)

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Challenge: Pretraining multilingual language models at scale leads to performance gains for cross-lingual transfer tasks.
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Hints on the data for language modeling of synthetic languages with transformers (2023.acl-long)

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Challenge: Language Models (LMs) are becoming more useful for providing representations for NLP applications.
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Compressing Large-Scale Transformer-Based Models: A Case Study on BERT (2021.tacl-1)

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Challenge: Popular pre-trained Transformers have improved performance for various NLP tasks by sizable margins, but are too resource-hungry and computation-intensive to suit low-capacity devices or applications with strict latency requirements.
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