Challenge: Hate speech datasets focus on English-language content, hindering effective models . annotating hateful content is expensive, time-consuming and potentially harmful to annotators.
Approach: They propose to use ISO 639-1 codes to fine-tune models on one source language and apply them to another language.
Outcome: The proposed approach performs well on some tasks, but fails on many others.

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Data-Efficient Methods For Improving Hate Speech Detection (2023.findings-eacl)

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Challenge: Existing methods for hate speech detection are data-hungry and require large datasets.
Approach: They propose an input-level data augmentation technique EasyMix to improve hate speech detection in english and multilingual datasets.
Outcome: The proposed method improves the performance across english and multilingual datasets by 1% and 2-8%.
Data-Efficient Hate Speech Detection via Cross-Lingual Nearest Neighbor Retrieval with Limited Labeled Data (2025.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Existing methods for detecting hate speech data are expensive and time-consuming . labeled data is expensive and difficult to collect, especially for low-resource languages .
Approach: They propose a method that leverages nearest-neighbor retrieval to augment minimal labeled data in target language.
Outcome: The proposed method outperforms existing models on eight languages and is highly data-efficient.
Fight Fire with Fire: Fine-tuning Hate Detectors using Large Samples of Generated Hate Speech (2021.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Existing methods for hate speech detection are limited in size and lack of labeled datasets.
Approach: They employ pretrained language models to generate large amounts of hate speech sequences from available labeled examples.
Outcome: The proposed model improves generalization significantly and consistently within and across data distributions.
Delving into Qualitative Implications of Synthetic Data for Hate Speech Detection (2024.emnlp-main)

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Challenge: Recent work on synthetic data for training models for NLP tasks reports mixed results on subjective tasks such as hate speech detection.
Approach: They propose to use synthetic data to train models for highly subjective tasks such as hate speech detection to investigate the potential and specific pitfalls of using it.
Outcome: The proposed model outperforms models trained with real data on hate speech detection tasks, but it fails to accurately reflect real-world data on linguistic dimensions and results in different class distributions.
Word-Level Detection of Code-Mixed Hate Speech with Multilingual Domain Transfer (2025.findings-acl)

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Challenge: a growing problem in language detection tasks is code-mixing, a combination of more than one language . lack of available datasets for code-mixing causes the problem . authors propose a multilingual approach to code-matching .
Approach: They propose to use an annotated hate speech dataset to detect code-mixing in profane language . they propose to apply bilingual fine-tuned models to code-mixed hate speech in german rap lyrics .
Outcome: The proposed model can detect code-mixed hate speech and neologisms in German rap lyrics . the proposed model is more nuanced than binary classification .
Exposing the limits of Zero-shot Cross-lingual Hate Speech Detection (2021.acl-short)

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Challenge: a lack of labeled, non-English resources for hate speech detection limits research on hate speech . a recent study shows that zero-shot, cross-lingual learning models cannot be used as they are . lack of consistency limits research, and lack of models for non-english languages limits learning .
Approach: They propose a zero-shot, cross-lingual transfer learning framework for hate speech detection . they use benchmark data sets in English, Italian, and Spanish to detect hate speech .
Outcome: The proposed framework can't be used as it is, but needs to be carefully designed, the authors say . they find that non-hateful, language-specific taboo interjections are misinterpreted as signals of hate speech .
Multilingual and Multi-Aspect Hate Speech Analysis (D19-1)

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Challenge: Current research on hate speech analysis is oriented towards monolingual and single classification tasks.
Approach: They propose to use a multilingual multi-aspect hate speech analysis dataset to test current methods . they evaluate the dataset in various classification settings and discuss how to leverage annotations .
Outcome: The proposed dataset can be used to improve hate speech detection and classification in general.
Probing LLMs for hate speech detection: strengths and vulnerabilities (2023.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Recent efforts to detect hateful or toxic language using large language models have not used explanation, additional context and victim community information in the detection process.
Approach: They use different prompt variations, input information and victim community information to evaluate large language models in zero shot setting without adding any in-context examples.
Outcome: The proposed models perform significantly better when included in the pipeline than baseline models.
Generating Counter Narratives against Online Hate Speech: Data and Strategies (2020.acl-main)

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Challenge: Hate Speech (HS) is a pervasive issue that spreads quickly and widely . research has focused on avoiding undesired effects that come with content moderation .
Approach: They propose to use large scale unsupervised language models to generate responses to hate effectively using large scale models.
Outcome: The proposed methods lack quality data and produce generic/repetitive responses.
HateCOT: An Explanation-Enhanced Dataset for Generalizable Offensive Speech Detection via Large Language Models (2024.findings-emnlp)

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Challenge: Social media has amplified the propagation of hateful sentiments, highlighting the contested nature of "offensive content" research shows that "of offensive content" is still a contested construct due to varying definitions and labeling.
Approach: They propose a dataset that features human-curated explanations for offensive content in English . they show that HateCOT pretraining improves performance of open-source LLMs .
Outcome: The proposed model improves on three benchmark datasets for offensive content detection . the model improve the quality of its explanations, as confirmed by the human evaluation .

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